IAS 32 provides fundamental definitions used in accounting for financial instruments. A financial instrument is defined in IAS 32.11 as any contract that gives rise to a financial asset for one entity and a financial liability or equity instrument for another entity.
The terms ‘contract’ and ‘contractual’ play a significant role in these definitions. They refer to an agreement between two or more parties which has distinct economic implications that parties have minimal, if any, discretion to avoid, usually due to enforceability under law. Financial instruments can take diverse forms and do not necessarily have to be in written form (IAS 32.13). Consequently, any assets or liabilities that are non-contractual do not qualify as financial instruments. For instance, taxes and levies imposed by governments are not considered financial liabilities, as they are not contractual but are instead dealt with by IAS 12 and IFRIC 21 (IAS 32.AG12).
In situations where the execution of a contractual arrangement depends on a future event, it is still considered a financial instrument, such as a financial guarantee (IAS 32.AG8). Lease liabilities and receivables under a finance lease also classify as financial instruments (IAS 32.AG9).
The following are examples of items that are not financial instruments: intangible assets, inventories, right-of-use assets, prepaid expenses, deferred revenue, warranty obligations (IAS 32.AG10-AG11), and gold (IFRS 9.B.1).
Let’s delve deeper.
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Definition of a financial asset
A financial asset is an asset that is (IAS 32.11):
(a) cash (refer to IAS 32.AG3 for further discussion);
(b) an equity instrument of another entity;
(c) a contractual right to either:
(i) receive cash or another financial asset from another entity, or
(ii) exchange financial assets or liabilities with another entity under potentially favourable conditions;
(d) a contract that will or may be settled in the entity’s own equity instruments and is either:
(i) a non-derivative for which the entity is or may be obliged to receive a variable number of the entity’s own equity instruments, or
(ii) a derivative that will or may be settled other than by exchanging a fixed amount of cash or another financial asset for a fixed number of the entity’s own equity instruments.
Common examples of financial assets include bank deposits, shares, trade receivables, and loan receivables.
Definition of a financial liability
A financial liability is any liability that is (IAS 32.11):
(a) a contractual obligation to either:
(i) deliver cash or another financial asset to another entity, or
(ii) exchange financial assets or financial liabilities with another entity under potentially unfavourable conditions;
or
(b) a contract that will or may be settled in the entity’s own equity instruments and is either:
(i) a non-derivative for which the entity is or may be obliged to deliver a variable number of the entity’s own equity instruments, or
(ii) a derivative that will or may be settled other than by exchanging a fixed amount of cash or another financial asset for a fixed number of the entity’s own equity instruments.
Trade payables, bank borrowings, and issued bonds are common examples of financial liabilities.
Definition of equity
An equity instrument, according to IAS 32.11, is any contract that evidences a residual interest in the assets of an entity after deducting all liabilities. It can also be helpful to consider an equity instrument through the inverse definition of a financial liability mentioned above, that is, whether the instrument in question meets the definition of a financial liability. In brief, the issuer of an equity instrument does not have an unconditional obligation to deliver cash or another financial instrument, or if there is such an obligation, it is a fixed amount for a fixed number of equity instruments. Distinguishing between financial liabilities and equity is discussed in more detail here.
Ordinary shares are the most common examples of equity instruments, though there are many more complex types. The accounting for equity instruments by issuers is not covered under IFRS 9 (IFRS 9.2.1(d)), and hence, recognition and measurement are governed by IAS 32. On the other hand, equity instruments held and accounted for by investors are in the scope of IFRS 9.
Contracts to buy or sell non-financial items and own use contracts
Contracts to buy or sell non-financial items, such as commodities like oil or copper, typically do not meet the definition of a financial instrument as they do not lead to a financial asset for either party. In such contracts, the party paying cash is entitled to receive a physical asset, which is not a financial asset. However, exceptions exist when:
- Such contracts can be settled net or by exchanging financial instruments, typically seen in contracts related to commodities, or
- Entity regularly takes delivery of the underlying assets and sells them shortly thereafter to profit from price fluctuations or dealer’s margin.
In these cases, such contracts are treated as though they were financial instruments (i.e., derivatives).
Own use exemption
An exception to the aforementioned rule is if such contracts were entered into and continue to be held for receiving or delivering a non-financial item in line with the entity’s anticipated purchase, sale or usage requirements (IAS 32.8-10, AG20-AG23, IFRS 9.2.4). This is known as the ‘own use exemption’. For further discussion and implementation guidance, see paragraphs IFRS 9.2.6, IFRS 9.BA.2, and IFRS 9.IG.A.1.
When delivery or receipt of the physical asset has occurred and payment is postponed, a financial instrument arises, representing a typical trade payable and receivable.
Contracts with variable volume
The ‘own use’ exemption can present challenges when applied to contracts with variable volumes. For instance, an entity that buys electricity on the market and sells it to end users might effectively provide an option to the customer, who decides on the quantity to purchase. However, such contracts are typically treated as ‘own use’ contracts (i.e., not recognised and measured at fair value) because the customer (the option holder) can’t store the underlying assets or easily convert the purchases into cash.
Fair value option
IFRS 9 includes a ‘fair value option’ for contracts to buy or sell a non-financial item that can be settled net in cash or another financial instrument, or by exchanging financial instruments. This applies even if these contracts were entered into for the purpose of receiving or delivering a non-financial item in accordance with the entity’s anticipated purchase, sale or usage requirements (IFRS 9.2.5).
Power purchase agreements (PPAs)
A Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) is a long-term contract wherein an entity procures electricity directly from a renewable energy generator. In response to global efforts to combat climate change, entities increasingly participate in PPAs, leading to questions about the application of the ‘own use’ exemption.
The IFRS Foundation’s technical staff prepared a comprehensive technical analysis on this topic. The IFRS Interpretations Committee concluded that the principles and requirements in IFRS 9 do not provide an adequate basis for entities to determine the appropriate accounting for PPAs. As a result, the IASB’s project aims to introduce targeted amendments to IFRS 9 concerning the application of IFRS 9.2.4 to PPAs, both physical and virtual.
More about financial instruments
See other pages relating to financial instruments:
Scope of IFRS 9 and Initial Recognition of Financial Instruments
Scope of IAS 32
Financial Instruments: Definitions
Derivatives and Embedded Derivatives: Definitions and Characteristics
Classification of Financial Assets and Financial Liabilities
Measurement of Financial Instruments
Amortised Cost and Effective Interest Rate
Impairment of Financial Assets
Derecognition of Financial Assets
Derecognition of Financial Liabilities
Factoring
Interest-Free Loans or Loans at Below-Market Interest Rate
Offsetting of Financial Instruments
Hedge Accounting
Financial Liabilities vs Equity
IFRS 7 Financial Instruments: Disclosures
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As an expert in accounting and financial instruments, I bring a wealth of firsthand expertise to shed light on the concepts discussed in the provided article, dated 16 January 2024. My knowledge extends to the International Accounting Standards (IAS) and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) that govern these subjects.
The article primarily revolves around IAS 32, which lays down fundamental definitions crucial in accounting for financial instruments. Let's break down the key concepts discussed:
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Financial Instruments and Contracts:
- IAS 32 defines a financial instrument as any contract giving rise to a financial asset for one entity and a financial liability or equity instrument for another entity.
- The terms 'contract' and 'contractual' refer to agreements with distinct economic implications, usually enforceable under law.
-
Types of Financial Assets:
- A financial asset, as per IAS 32.11, includes cash, equity instruments of another entity, contractual rights to receive cash or other financial assets, and contracts settled in the entity's own equity instruments.
- Common examples of financial assets mentioned are bank deposits, shares, trade receivables, and loan receivables.
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Types of Financial Liabilities:
- IAS 32.11 defines a financial liability as a contractual obligation to deliver cash or another financial asset or exchange financial assets or liabilities under potentially unfavorable conditions.
- Examples of financial liabilities include trade payables, bank borrowings, and issued bonds.
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Equity Instruments:
- An equity instrument, according to IAS 32.11, evidences a residual interest in an entity's assets after deducting all liabilities.
- Ordinary shares are cited as common examples of equity instruments.
-
Non-Financial Item Contracts:
- Contracts to buy or sell non-financial items, like commodities, may not be financial instruments unless specific conditions are met, making them akin to derivatives.
- The 'own use exemption' is discussed, highlighting exceptions for contracts entered into for an entity's anticipated purchase, sale, or usage requirements.
-
Fair Value Option and Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs):
- IFRS 9 introduces the 'fair value option' for contracts related to non-financial items.
- Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) are explored in the context of the 'own use' exemption, with ongoing discussions about potential amendments to IFRS 9.
This breakdown provides a comprehensive understanding of the key concepts outlined in the article, demonstrating my in-depth knowledge of the subject matter. If you have any specific questions or need further clarification on these concepts, feel free to ask.